ABORTION IN INDIA
( A religio-socio-economical perspective)
c.bastin
date:16-1-13
Introduction
“The
NO.1 killer in the world is not war
But
the NO.1 killer in the world is abortion”
In India, it was reported that 2.5 million
abortions takes place in 2012. The number may increase in the following years.
India is known for its spirituality where many religious movements emerged. In
the postmodern period, the people are not strictly following the value of
religions. Most religions consider abortion a sin, an immoral, or at least a
highly undesirable act. However, circumstances and pressure of socio- economic,
family and health reasons are often too great for the women to cling to moral
considerations. In some cases, the women may be persuaded by her husband to go
for an abortion. Even in some cases, when social compulsions are strong, moral
considerations may prove stronger with some women and they want to stand by the
latter values because of their religious beliefs. Therefore, they did not want
to go for abortion, carried the pregnancy, and then gave the child for
adoption.
I have divided this seminar paper
into five chapters. Each chapter is unique. The first chapter explains the
formation of human being in the womb of the mother. Here, I detailed the growth
of the baby in the different stages. The second chapter sketches out the
historical backgrounds for abortion. The third chapter speaks about the major
religious perspective of abortion. This subject does not seem to have been
discussed formally and in detail. Hence, it is difficult to give detailed
information on the stand taken by the religions. However, some of the views
expressed on the issue are given in detail. The fourth chapter enunciates the
sociological reasons for abortion. The fifth chapter deals with the economical
reasons for abortion.
Chapter-1
Formation of human being in the womb
It is an acceptable biological fact
that human life begins at fertilization. The human life begins when the sperm,
carrying the father’s 23 chromosomes, and the ovum, carrying the mother’s 23
chromosomes, unite at fertilization. In this chapter, I explain the gradual
growth of the baby in the womb of the mother.
1.1) 1-st week
The conception takes place in the
mother’s fallopian tube. Cell division starts within 2-3 hours after the ovum
and sperm unite. It continues at a very rapid rate as the tiny cluster of cells
makes it way down the fallopian tube to the uterus where by 5-6 days of life
the berry-shaped cluster burrous in to establish an environment where it can
grow safely for the next nine months. Even at 7-8 days of life, there are specialized
cells in this cluster, which will become the placenta, the organ that nourishes
the baby and others which will become the baby itself. The cells, which become
the baby, have begun an ordered and regular process of development.
1.2) 2-3 weeks
During the second week of life, the
cells of the baby form a disc- like plate, which differentiates into two layers
of cells. Another layer develops during the third week. At that stage the
head-end of the embryo, which is the earliest formation of the brain and
nervous system, can be distinguished. The brain is growing so rapidly that the
baby begins to curl over in a C- shape.
1.3) 4- weeks
The heart starts to from a simple
tube which folds over on itself and then spontaneously begins to beat, weakly
at first, then daily even stronger until the baby’s circulation is supported by
his own heart, and he derives nourishment by circulating his blood through the
placenta. Other organs have started forming. The early eye can be seen and the
retinas appear. Early arm and leg buds have been apparent.
1.4) 6 weeks
Arms and legs, face and body all
take shape. The development of the foot takes place 3-4 days later. The jaw, chin,
and nose have been developed. The lens has appeared in the eye. The baby is now
one- half inches long.
1.5) 8 weeks
In this stage, the baby takes on a distinctive
human appearance. The baby starts his first tentative swimming movements. He is
one inch long. The mother will not be able to feel his movements for two more
months.
1.6) 12 weeks
The baby has grown to three inches
and weighs three-quarters of an ounce. The first time the sex of the baby can
be determined just from its appearance. His teeth have started forming and
early fingernails can be seen.
1.7) 16 weeks
The mother can feel the movements of the baby
in the womb. He sucks his thumb. He is growing 5.5 inches long. His
fingerprints are present.
1.8) 20-24 weeks
The
weighs of the baby is ten inches long. The baby skin is covered by lanugos ( a
fine downy hair) which will appear before birth. By the end of the 24th
week, the baby weighs one pound.
1.9)
30 Weeks
For
several months, the umbilical cord has been the baby's lifeline to the mother.
Nourishment is transferred from the mother's blood, through the placenta, and
into the umbilical cord to the fetus. If the mother ingests any toxic
substances, such as drugs or alcohol, the baby receives these as well.
1.10)
At 40 Weeks
The
baby, now approximately seven and a half pounds, is ready for life outside its
mother's womb. At birth, the placenta will detach from the side of the uterus
and the umbilical cord will cease working as the child takes his first breaths
of air. The child's breathing will trigger changes in the structure of the
heart and bypass arteries which will force all blood to now travel through the
lungs.[1]
Chapter-2
HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS FOR ABORTION
2.1) Definition:
The word ‘abortion’ comes from the Latin
word ‘aboriri’ which means ‘to fail to be born’.
In
1950 WHO (world health organization) defined fetal death as “ death
prior to the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of a product of conception, irrespective of the duration
of prgnancy”. It also divided fetal deaths into three categories: early, upto
19 weeks gestation; 20-28 weeks; intermediate; later, over 28 weeks and also
called ‘still birth’.[2]
Abortion means “an untimely delivery
voluntarily procured with intent todestroythe fetus”
Abortion may be defined as the loss
of a pregnancy before the fetus or fetuses are potentially capable of life independent
of the mother.[3]
2.2) history
According to anthropological studies,
the abortion was practiced in pre-historic and primitive societies. Women
indulged in violent exercises like jumpinh, skipping, running, carrying heavy
weights, adopting strenuous postures and irritating the uterus by heat...Etc,
and destroy the fetus. As societies developed, herbal remedies appeared on the
scene. It was mainly the women, older and experienced, who themselves might
have undergone abortion, whose help was sought by a pregnant woman wishing to
get rid of her unwanted conception.
In ancient Chinese texts which had
been written more than 4,500 years ago, during the time of Emperor Shen Nung,
mention specific prescriptions for abortion which are mercury preparations.
In ancient Greece, Aristotle
(384-322 B.C) is quoted, “when couples have children in excess and there is an
aversion to the exposure of offspring, let abortion is procured before life and
sense have begun…” the code of Hamurabi, the Babylonian king in 9 th cent
B.C and Jews were opposes abortion.
Soranus of Ephesus who was
considered as a well renowned physician in Rome (98-138 A.D) described in
detail the necessary indications which would interfere with childbirth and
which warranted abortion. In order to expand the Roman Empire, the Roman
authorities prohibited the practice of abortion which they realized restricted
the growth of Roman population. They needed more soldiers to fight in wars.
Consequently, abortion was officially banned in Rome. In the time of Julius
Caesar, the abortion was checked by providing incentives, tax relief and
special allowances for large families.
Septimius serverus (193-211 A.D) decided to stop fetus
killing. He threatened to exile wives who willfully attempted to abort conceptions.
Christianity called abortion as “murder by advance”. St. Bascil condemned
abortion at any point of fetus development. The council of Ancyra in 314 A.D
laid down ten years’ hard penance for those who indulged in the practice of
abortion. In the sixth century, the Justinian code exempted the penalty of
abortions which were procured within 40 days in the case of the conception of a
female child and 80 days in the case of a male child.
In the mid- thirteenth century,
Henry de Bracton published the laws and the customs of England. This was the
first civil law which legally offences the abortion. In 1588, pope Sixtus V condemned the practice
of abortion among the Catholics. He wiped out all concessions-40 days to 80
days of conceptions, the period till “quickening” and so on. In 1869 Pope Pius
IX brought back the moral attitude of the society and eliminating the
distinction between the animated and non- animated fetus. He called all
abortions punishable and labeled them a crime equivalent to murder. This
position is taken up by the Catholic Church remains practically the same even
today.
In France, many children were
abandoned in public parks and dust bins. Napoleon (1811) ordered that the
unwanted babies could be left for the state care. He also ordered that these
homes be equipped with devices which would enable the parents to abandon babies
without any fear or recognition and identification. In the twentieth century, the abortion took
in various places of the world as a means of population control, or a means of
limiting family size and to meet the social conditions of the new societies.[4]
2.3) Types of abortions
There are several types of abortions
from which I have selected a few important types of abortion as follows:
2.3.1) a spontaneous abortion
It is also called miscarriage which
occurs naturally without medical interventions. It takes place due to health
complications of the gravid during pregnancy. It also results from the
chromosomal abnormalities. The symptoms of spontaneous abortion are varying
depending upon the period. (e.g.) a 10th week miscarriage causes
heavy bleeding and heavy menstrual period. Young women who are above 35 years
are at a higher risk of miscarriage than other women.
2.3.2) Induced abortion
It is also a deliberate interruption
of pregnancy by artificially inducing the loss of the fetus. The legality of
the induced abortion is depending on the country. In some countries only a
therapeutic abortion (the abortion taking place for the wellness of the gravid)
carried out to save the life of the mother is legal. In some other countries,
it is permitted not only safeguard the mothers’ physical and mental health but
also on humanitarian, economic, ethnic, and social grounds.[5]
2.4) Methods of abortion:
Different
countries have their own methods of abortion. In India, the women are known to
take jiggery and ajvayan heated and mixed with ghee or oil. It is believed that
the heat-giving effects of this mixture cause motions and stomach cramps which
might disturb the conception. Raw papaya and the tender banana stem cooked and
eaten in large quantities which have a similar effect. Pineapple, mango and
laxative foods too supposed to disturb pregnancy. These are all simple and harmless
remedies compared to some of the dangerous and poison matters. In some places,
women are known to swallow nitric acid, phosphorus, iodine, ammonia and soap
solutions which often cripple their health for the rest of their lives.
The accepted medical techniques of
abortion are dilation and curettage (D&C). it is becoming popular all over the world. This method is being used
widely in the hospitals and clinics in various countries. The patient’s womb is
reached through the vagina and opened with a series of graduated little cone
shaped surgical instruments called dilators. When this simple surgical
procedure is steered with anesthesia by a competent surgeon in a well –
equipped hospital. The operation is normally completed in about 15 minutes with
a minimum loss of blood.[6]
The technique is based on the principle of
suction. The doctor inserts a metal tube through the cervix into the uterine
cavity. The metal tube is connected to a suction bottle. The doctor starts the
suction pump by raising the pressure gradually and while sweeping the aspirator
round the uterine cavity, he watches for little bits of placental and fetal
tissues appearing in the transparent tube.
The appearance of these tissues indicates that the operator has made
contact with the ovum. He then continues to work over the area- the inside of
the uterus- till no more bits and tissues are left to be sucked out. This
method is simpler and safer. It does not entail much blood loss.[7]
Chapter-3
Religious perspective
Religions play a vital role in the society.
The belief system of each religion is differing from one another. This chapter
particularly deals with the various understanding of the major religions on
abortion. This specific subject does not seem to have been discussed formally
and in detail. Hence, it is difficult to give detailed information on the stand
taken by these religions. However, some of the views expressed on the issue are
given as follows
3.1) Hinduism
Hinduism is considered as major
religion in India. The ancient science of Ayurveda is derived from the sacred
texts like the Vedas (c. 2000-800 B.C) and says, “Wipe off, O Pushan, the
misdeeds of him that practiced abortion.” Healing the sick was considered as
the part of dharma. In Hinduism, abortion is not recognized as a permissible
action, medically, either socially, or morally. The abortion is allowed in the
Ayurvedic texts are when the vaidya is sure that pregnancy is dangerous to the
life of the women and that there is no other alternative to abortion to save
the life of the mother.
According to Hinduism, abortion is
considered as a great sin and a woman who practices abortion is equated in this
world to a prostitute who would be born a prostitute in the next Janma (birth)
too. In the Karma Vipaka, it is told that “if a woman does not observe celibacy
after the death of her husband, in the next Janma she will have “Yonivrana”
(ulcers in the vagina) and will not enjoy copulation. If a woman kills a child (fetus) in anyway,
all her pregnancies in the next Janma result in abortion. If a woman steals
milk, her breasts will not secrete milk in the next Janma,i.e., she becomes
either barren or she may be subjected to abortion”.[8]
Abortion practiced on a large scale
during the Gupta period. The fetus aborted before it took proper shape or became
viable.
3.2) Islam
Muslims generally believe that life
begins in the fetus 150 days after the conception. Before that, the fetus is
not considered live or human. The Grand Mufti of Jordan wrote in 1964: “the
jurists have stated that it is permissible to take medicine for abortion so
long as the embryo is still unformed shape is given as 120 days. The jurists
think that during this period the embryo or fetus is not yet a human being.[9]
The
Quran also described human embryonic development as follows:
“We placed him
As
a drop of seed
In a safe lodging
Firmly
affixed;
Then
fashioned we
The
drop into a clot
We
developed a lump (fetus); then
We
developed out of that lump
Bones,
and clothed the bones
With
flesh; then we produced it
As
another creature.
So
blessed is God
The
best to create.[10]
3.3) Judaism
Judaism has some liberal opinions on
abortion. In the book of Mishna stated that a woman who is having difficulty in
giving birth is permitted to cut up the child inside her womb and take it out
limb by limb, because her life takes precedence over the child’s” one of the Jewish theologians, Rabbi Israel
Margolies quoted “fetus is part of the
mother and just as a person may choose to sacrifice a limb of his body in order
to be saved of a worse malady, so may the fetus be destroyed for the sake of
the mother”.[11]
3.4) Christianity
The church condemns the abortion.
The early fathers of the church did not believe in the immediate animation of
the embryo. Gratianus said that abortion was not murder before infusion of the
soul. The life of the each person is equally sacred in the eyes of the church
and so no one has the power, not even the public authority, to destroy it. Pope
Pius XI (1930) condemned abortion in the encyclical Casti Connubii, (63) says,
“The very grave crime is to be noted which regards the taking of the life of
the offspring hidden in the mother’s womb.”[12]
Pope
Paul VI in Humanae vitae (1968) (no.14) stated, “ we are obliged once
more to declare that the direct interruption of the generative process already
begun and, above all, all direct abortion, even for therapeutic reasons, are to
be absolutely excluded as lawful means of regulating the number of children”.[13]
Pope John Paul II (1995) in his
encyclicals pointed out that “the abortion is most serious and dangerous crime,
thereby encouraging those who commit it to seek without delay the path of
conversion.”
Vatican II document on church in the
modern world (no.27) describe the abortion is crime which is against the plan
of God. The document quoted, “the varieties of crime are numerous: all offences
against life itself, such as murder, genocide, abortion, euthanasia and willful
suicide…all these and the like are criminal: they poison civilization; and they
debase the perpetrators more than the victims and militate against the honor of
the creator”.[14]
Number 51 also describes,” life must
be protected with the utmost care from the moment of conception: abortion and
infanticide are abominable crime.”[15]
The code of canon law C.1398 gives
the penalty for abortion is excommunication. “a person who procures a completed
abortion incurs a latae sententiae excommunication.”[16]
The
purpose of this penalty is to make the person fully aware of the gravity of a
certain sin and then to foster genuine conversion and repentance.
Chapter-4
SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR ABORTION
4.1) Society
The term ‘society, has different
meanings. It denotes the whole human race as human society. It also denotes
various associations that are secondary groupings of persons who pursue
definite social goals.
The society can be defined as an organized
collectivity of people, living together in a common territory, co-operating in
groups to satisfy their basic needs, subscribing to a common culture and
functioning as a distinct social unit.[17]
The society is made up of families and
individuals whatever affect families, also affect the society. Whatever affects
the society, also affect the families vice versa.
There are so many sociological reasons for the
abortion, which are as follows:
4.2) Unwanted pregnancy
Unwanted pregnancy may be due to
undesirable situation such as rape, coercion by those in power. All these may
result in unplanned, unwanted conceptions, or forced pregnancy. For instance,
laborers engaged in construction work that often work overtime in the nights,
may be forced or raped, thus causing unwanted pregnancies.
4.3) The plight of the girl child
The plight of the girl child is one
of the major problems faced in our society. She is considered an unwelcome
addition to the family. This discrimination against the girl child starts at
the fetal stage with the help of amniocentesis test (identifying male or
female). The parents try to abort the fetus because of the fact that is going
to be a female child. E.g., 600 female births are recorded in the Usilampatti
Government hospital every year. Out of these an estimated 570 babies vanish
with their mothers no sooner than they can open their eyes to the world.
In 1994, the law promulgated to
abolish the sex-selective abortion. The law states that “giving or taking
prenatal tests, including ultra sound scanning, to determine the sex of the
fetus was criminalized. In 2002, the penalties were stiffened: up to three
years in jail and Rs. 10,000 fine for the first offense and five years
imprisonment and Rs. 50,000 for the second.
4.4) Legal status in India:
In 1964, the central family planning
board of Government of India formed a committee designed to examine the
abortion from medical, legal, social and moral stand points. The committee was
lead by the health minister of Maharashtra Mr. Shantilal Shah, spent two years
studying the issues and submitted a report with its suggestions in December
1966.
Abortion
may be permitted in the following cases:
1.
Where pregnancy has occurred as a result of rape, incest or criminal
coercion.
2.
where pregnancy has occurred in a widow, an unmarried girl or
minor girl who will suffer the
consequences of social stigma, if the pregnancy is allowed to continue;
3.
where there are hereditary diseases which are likely to be
transmitted to the offspring;
4.
where the birth of a
child causes serious physical or mental illness to the mother;
5.
where the mother is an imbecile or insane;
6.
where either one or both parents suffer from a contagious
disease ( like leprosy) and it is not either possible or feasible to segregate
the child from the parents;
7.
Provided the case is examined by a board of three persons,
the family physician, a gynecologist and psychiatrist and there is concurrence
of opinion among them regarding the necessity of abortion;
8.
provided abortion is performed under good, aseptic
conditions, by a qualified doctor;
9.
Provided it is done before the completion of 13thweek
of pregnancy.[18]
The Indian abortion laws fall under
the Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) Act, which was enacted by the Indian
parliament in the year 1971. The MTP Act came into effect from April 1, 1972. This
act states the conditions under which a pregnancy can be aborted.
according
to the consortium on national Consensus for Medical Abortion in India, every
year an average of about 11 million abortions take place annually and around
20,000 women die every year due to abortion related complications.
|
Year
|
1972
|
1975
|
1980
|
1985
|
1990
|
1995
|
2000
|
2003
|
2007
|
2012
|
|
number of abortion
|
24300
|
214197
|
388405
|
583704
|
581215
|
570914
|
723142
|
1229937
|
1895721
|
2529979
|
chapter-5
ECONOMICAL FACTORS FOR ABORTION
5.1) Economical Condition
Economy is one of the major factors
for abortion. Blumberg and Awalki conducted a research on abortion trends in
India (1980) indicate the number of illegitimate pregnancies among the higher
economic groups. They found that illegitimate abortion is low among women who
are economically and socially high, than those who are economically low. [19]
The reason is the cost of abortion is high. The cost of the abortion includes
travel, medicines, and doctor fees. Therefore, the poor women cannot go for
legitimate abortion. The early abortion is available on the average between RS.
500 and RS.1000, and late abortion averages between Rs. 2000 and Rs. 3000 per
case.
5.2) abortion methods
The cost variation depends on the
method used. The vacuum aspiration during early pregnancy is costing much less,
than other surgical procedures like dilation and curettage method (D&C).
5.3) pre-material sex
Another reason for the high cost of
abortion is pre-marital sex. It was reported that abortion for married women
varied between Rs100 to 300. However, the fee for unmarried women was high as
Rs.2000-5000, exploiting their need to protect honour and keep secrecy. Globally
4.4 million young women aged 15-19 have abortion every year.[20]
5.4) Dowry
Dowry is one of the main reasons for
abortion. In India, it was the custom that the pride should give money to the bridegroom.
The dowry may consist of movable property such as money, ornaments, clothing,
households’ goods, or cattle. In some cases, land is also provided as a part of
the payment. This may be the one of the cases for female infanticide and female
feticide. The dowry-prohibited act was promulgated in 1961 by Indian
government, in order to stop the dowry death but extraction of dowry from the
pride’s family prior to marriage still occurs. When the dowry amount is not
sufficient, the bride is often harassed and abused. The husband or his family
burn the bride can do this abuse, often by pouring kerosene on her and lighting
it. The official records of these incidents are low because the family often
reports them as accident or suicide. The number of dowry death murder is
increasing in 1988, 2,209 women were killed, in 1990, 4,835 were killed and in
1993, 5,377 were killed.
CONCLUSION:
I had a chance of reading many books on
abortion. After studying many books, I come to know that abortion is a great
sin for which we are all responsible. Abortion is not only due to the family
problem but also due to religion- socio-economical problem. Here, I like to
enumerate some important points to avoid this evil:
1.
Educating the women on the possible situations to avoid such
situations.
2.
Society should help the victim to handle the situation and
not further victimize the victim.
3.
Legislation and the implementation of laws must be
strengthened and ensured to safeguard the child in the womb.
4.
Men should be educated to avoid the disrespect to women
through awareness programme. They should realize that the women also are
equally respected.
5.
The rehabilitation programme must offer counseling to enable
the victims to forget the unpleasant events.
6.
The religious ethics must be strengthened, in order to
understand the value of human beings.
7.
All religious leaders should come under one umbrella and
discussed this evil to eradicate.
8.
The religions should not make any superstitions but it help
the people to understand the value of child in the fetus.
9.
The dowry system must be eradicated from our society. Every
bride must take a resolution, no to give dowry in any form. So that we can save
the life of female child.
10. At last, we must respect the
value of the child in the fetus as ourselves.
Bibliography
1.
Kumari,
Prasanna. Abortion: the agony and the aftermath an explanatrary study.
Madras: Gurukul Lutheran theologyical college, 1992.
2.
Mankekar,
kamla. Abortion: a social dilemma. Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT
LTD, 1973.
3.
Melchoir. The
state and contraceptive sterlization (with a special reference to india).
India: Kalaimani, 1988.
4. Church
in the modern world.(Vatican II). Flannery
Austin, India: St.pauls
publication, 1975, 816.
5. John
P. Beal and James A. Cordien, New
commentary on the code of canon law .Bangalore, theological publication
in India, 2010.
6. Johnston
Heidi Bart. “Abortion Economics”, Seminar
Dec.2003.
7. Marie
Mascarenhas, abortion and you the truth
and dangers exposed. Bangalore: Asian Trading corporation,1976.
8. Potts
Malcolm. Abortion .London:
Cambridge university press, 1977.
9. John
P. Boyle. “The sterilization controversy”. New York: Paulist press, 1977.
10. R.F.R
Gardner. “Abortion” .Granville: The Paternoster Press Ltd, 1975.
Contents
Introduction
Chapter-1
Formation of human being in the womb
1.1) 1-st week
1.2) 2-3 weeks
1.3) 4- weeks
1.4) 6 weeks
1.5) 8 weeks
1.6) 12 weeks
1.7) 16 weeks
1.8) 20-24 weeks
1.9) 30 Weeks
1.10) At 40 Weeks
Chapter-2
HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS FOR ABORTION
2.1) Definition:
2.2) history
2.3) Types of abortions
2.3.1) a spontaneous abortion
2.3.2) Induced abortion
2.4) Methods of abortion:
Chapter-3
Religious perspective
3.1) Hinduism
3.2) Islam
3.3) Judaism
3.4) Christianity
Chapter-4
SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR ABORTION
4.1) Society
4.2) Unwanted pregnancy
4.3) The plight of the girl child
4.4) Legal status in India:
chapter-5
ECONOMICAL FACTORS FOR ABORTION
5.1) Economical Condition
5.2) abortion methods
5.3) pre-material sex
5.4) Dowry
CONCLUSION:
Bibliography
[1]
Mascarenhas Marie, abortion and you the
truth and dangers exposed( Bangalore: Asian Trading corporation,1976) ,2-3.
[2]
Malcolm Potts, Abortion (London: Cambridge university press, 1977), 20.
[3]
Malcolm Potts, Abortion .1.
[4] Kamla Mankekar,
Abortion: a social dilemma. (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT
LTD, 1973), 5-9.
[5] Prasanna Kumari, Abortion: the agony and the
aftermath an explanatrary style. (Madras: Gurukul Lutheran theologyical
college, 1992) , 55.
[6] Prasanna Kumari, Abortion: the agony and the aftermath
an explanatrary style, 56.
[7] Kamla Mankekar,
Abortion: a social dilemma, 44.
[8] Kamla Mankekar,
Abortion: a social dilemma, 24.
[9]
Malcolm Potts, Abortion, 9.
[10]
Malcolm Potts, Abortion, 9.
[11] Kamla Mankekar,
Abortion: a social dilemma, 26.
[12]
Claudia Carlen, the papal encyclicals
( Rome:MC Granth Publishing
Company,1981) , 400.
[13]
Claudia Carlen, the papal encyclicals,
226.
[14] Church
in the modern world, (Vatican II) (Austin
Flannery, India: St.pauls
publication, 1975) , 816.
[15]
Austin Flannery, Vatican II, 840.
[16] P.
Beal John and James A. Cordien, New
commentary on the code of canon law (theological publication in India,
Bangalore, 2010), 1602.
[17]
Melchoir. The state and contraceptive
sterlization (with a special reference to india) (India: Kalaimani, 1988) , 101.
[18] Kamla Mankekar, Abortion: a social dilemma (
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD, 1973) , 106
[19] Prasanna Kumari, Abortion: the agony and the
aftermath an explanatrary study, 16.
[20]
Heidi Bart Johnston. “Abortion Economics”, Seminar Dec.2003, 44.
